A plea for the early promotion of critical thinking

What is critical thinking?

"To promote critical thinking is to give individuals and groups the power and permission to engage with their problems, issues, and concerns in the most responsible, effective and self-correcting way that our species has yet discovered."

In this statement, Facione (2013) vividly summarises why critical thinking is crucial for building a solution-oriented, progressive and sustainable society. In an era of fake news, artificial intelligence, and an ever-increasing flood of information via the internet and globalisation, the ability to think for oneself and systematically question things is more important than ever.

But what exactly does critical thinking mean? The answer varies depending on whom you ask — educators, psychologists or philosophers — as there is no uniform theoretical definition yet. Nevertheless, there are common core characteristics across all disciplines, which I will use as a working definition here:

Critical thinking describes a purposeful, self-regulating judgement based on key skills such as analysis, interpretation, evaluation and conclusion, and at the same time requires a corresponding disposition to use these skills regularly, openly and fairly. It thus encompasses both cognitive skills and the inner willingness to apply them actively and continuously (APA, 1990; Facione, 2011; Shieh and Nasongkhla, 2024).

In short, critical thinking consists of two components: a set of cognitive skills and the motivation to actually use these skills.

Relevance of critical thinking

Critical thinking is relevant not only in adulthood, but also during childhood and adolescence. Today's and future generations are growing up in an environment where information is constantly available via social media. This is not intended as a criticism of modern developments; technological progress ultimately stems from the Enlightenment and has led to greater prosperity and well-being in almost all areas of life (Pinker, 2018; Shieh & Nasongkhla, 2024). However, this abundance of information also poses a challenge. Critical thinking is an important tool for navigating this (Guamanga, 2025).

The decision to lower the voting age to 16 in the last European elections is a prime example of the need to encourage young people to think independently and question things critically from an early age, so that they can make well-informed and responsible decisions.

Children and young people today grow up in a world where it is neither feasible nor advisable to shield them from information on social media. In fact, excessive isolation could hinder the development of independent thinking. Instead, young people should be taught from an early age how to view information from multiple perspectives, reflect critically, and classify it. Critical thinking lays an important foundation for sound media literacy and can also serve as a protective factor against polarisation and radicalisation, regardless of whether they originate from the political left or right (Jugl, 2022; Shieh & Nasongkhla, 2024; Pinker, 2018; Savage et al., 2021).

Furthermore, critical thinking promotes a culture of healthy discussion, where different perspectives are seen as enriching rather than threatening (Pytlik-Zillig et al., 2018). Promoting critical thinking also sparks curiosity about why people hold different opinions. Taking different perspectives and reflecting on different points of view — including one's own — prevents entrenched positions and dogmatism. It enables constructive dialogue and creative, collaborative problem solving instead.

Promoting critical thinking in the education system

Critical thinking can be effectively promoted from an early age, so it should be integrated into the education system from the outset and across all subjects (Florea & Hurjui, 2015). The sooner children learn to think critically and solve problems independently, the better prepared they will be for the multifaceted challenges of an increasingly complex world. Promoting critical thinking from an early age has been shown to improve general comprehension, increase problem-solving skills, and strengthen the ability to learn independently. Teachers play a central role in this, using targeted questions, reflective teaching, and cooperative learning methods to actively stimulate and strengthen critical thinking among their students.

Lombardi et al. (2021) identify six core skills representing a holistic approach to developing critical thinking that can be promoted from primary school age.

• Interpretation: The ability to question facts and information in a targeted manner and to grasp their precise meaning.
• Analysis: The competence to examine arguments or information in a structured manner and to consider them in a differentiated way through debate and dialogue.
• Inference: The ability to draw logical conclusions independently and work constructively in a group to find solutions to problems.
• Evaluation: The ability to critically assess information, ideas or arguments, and to provide constructive feedback to peers.
• Explanation: The ability to communicate one's own thoughts and insights clearly and comprehensively, with digital tools offering creative opportunities for communication.
• Self-regulation: The ability to consciously control one's own thinking and learning, especially through regular routines and repetitive reflection processes.

The systematic and early promotion of these core competencies forms the basis for children and young people to fully develop their intellectual potential and act responsibly in later life, both privately and socially.

From skills to attitudes: Promoting a disposition towards critical thinking

It has become clear that critical thinking is of central importance for developing mature, reflective individuals, and it should therefore be incorporated into school education from an early stage. But how exactly can we equip pupils with cognitive skills and motivate them to use these skills regularly as a matter of course?

In the popular children's television programme Sesame Street, there is a well-known line that goes: “Who, what, why? If you don’t ask, you stay ignorant”. While this phrasing is playfully provocative, it captures an essential truth: critical thinking thrives on questions, curiosity and a willingness to challenge the familiar. This makes it clear that critical thinking is more than the sum of individual skills. It also requires an inner attitude — a disposition — to apply these skills consistently and effectively. Children and young people will only be able to fully exploit the potential of critical thinking if they are curious and enjoy asking new questions.

Facione (2000) identifies key dispositions that promote the application of critical thinking and should be encouraged at an early age:

• Curiosity: The desire to discover new information and explore connections.
• Open-mindedness: The ability to consider different points of view openly and critically reflect on existing assumptions.
• Systematic approach: A methodical approach to problem solving that promotes structured thinking processes.
• Analytical thinking: The impulse to question complex issues in depth and anticipate potential challenges.
• Perseverance: The willingness to devote oneself to difficult tasks with endurance and thoroughness.
• Confidence in thinking: A healthy degree of trust in one's own cognitive abilities.
• Maturity: The competence to make careful and considered decisions based on reflective consideration.

These dispositions are by no means innate character traits, but can be specifically promoted through education. The following strategies are particularly effective in this regard:

Teachers as role models: Children look up to adults who regularly demonstrate critical thinking. Educators who ask open questions and discuss uncertainties in a reflective manner encourage similar behaviour in their students.

• Open culture of discussion: Schools should create spaces where controversial topics can be discussed openly and where different opinions are valued. Pupils who learn to engage in open discussion with each other will develop robust discussion skills in the long term.
• Reflection on one's own thinking: Pupils should regularly be encouraged to reflect on and critically question their thinking and learning processes. This metacognitive reflection helps pupils to recognise their strengths and weaknesses, enabling them to continuously develop their skills.
• Challenging and realistic problems: Complex questions from students' everyday lives stimulate intrinsic motivation and curiosity, and require the use of a wide range of cognitive and social skills.

Teaching cognitive skills and systematically promoting these dispositions enables children and young people to develop into independent, self-confident individuals. Only in this way will they be able to confidently overcome future challenges and continue to act responsibly in a complex, dynamic world. However, for this approach to be effective, schools must provide suitable learning conditions that allow pupils to engage actively and independently with complex content. According to Florea and Hurjui (2015), younger children in particular benefit significantly from participatory learning methods and working in small groups. These learning environments promote cognitive excellence, such as abstraction, analysis and synthesis, as well as strengthening social skills, such as cooperative and creative problem solving. Teachers must create open and fear-free spaces for discussion, encouraging children to be curious, freely express their opinions and reflect on different perspectives.hat teachers create open and fear-free spaces for discussion in which children are encouraged to be curious, to freely express their own opinions and to reflect on different perspectives.

Conclusion

In a world where facts can be easily manipulated and information is almost unlimited, critical thinking is essential for a mature and resilient society. By equipping young people with the necessary cognitive skills and mindset from an early age, we empower them to play an active and responsible role in shaping their future. Therefore, critical thinking should not be viewed as an optional educational goal, but rather as a central component of modern, sustainable education policy. Only in this way can we ensure that future generations are able to tackle the challenges of an increasingly complex world independently, reflectively and in a solution-oriented manner.

References

Facione, P. (1990). Critical thinking: A statement of expert consensus for purposes of educational assessment and instruction (The Delphi Report).

Facione, P. A. (2000). The disposition toward critical thinking: Its character, measurement, and relationship to critical thinking skill. Informal logic, 20(1).

Facione, P. A. (2011). Critical thinking: What it is and why it counts. Insight assessment, 1(1), 1-23.

Facione, P. A., & Facione, N. C. (2013). Critical thinking for life: Valuing, measuring, and training critical thinking in all its forms. Inquiry: Critical thinking across the disciplines, 28(1), 5-25.

Florea, N. M., & Hurjui, E. (2015). Critical thinking in elementary school children. Procedia-Social and behavioral sciences, 180, 565-572.

Jugl, I. (2022). Breaking up the Bubble: Improving critical thinking skills and tolerance of ambiguity in deradicalization mentoring. Journal for Deradicalization, (30), 45-80.

Guamanga, M. H., Saiz, C., Rivas, S. F., & Bueno, P. M. (2025). Critical Thinking and Metacognition: Pathways to Empathy and Psychological Well-Being. Journal of Intelligence, 13(3), 34.

Lombardi, L., Mednick, F. J., De Backer, F., & Lombaerts, K. (2021). Fostering critical thinking across the primary school’s curriculum in the European schools system. Education Sciences, 11(9), 505.

Pinker, S. (2018). Aufklärung jetzt. Für Vernunft, Wissenschaft, Humanismus und Fortschritt: eine Verteidigung, 2.

PytlikZillig, L. M., Hutchens, M. J., Muhlberger, P., Gonzalez, F. J., Tomkins, A. J., PytlikZillig, L. M., ... & Tomkins, A. J. (2018). Attitude change and polarization. Deliberative Public Engagement with Science: An Empirical Investigation, 61-87.

Savage, S., Oliver, E., Gordon, E., & Tutton, L. (2021). Addressing social polarization through critical thinking: Theoretical application in the “Living Well With Difference” course in secondary schools in England. Journal of social and political psychology, 9(2), 490-505.

Shieh, C. J., & Nasongkhla, J. (2024). Effects of motivation to use social networking sites on students’ media literacy and critical thinking. Online Journal of Communication and Media Technologies, 14(1), e202404.